"Below, you'll find the most probable AGRO 247 questions tailored for exam preparation."
1) What is Farming System? Describe in brief Scope and Objectives of Farming system.
Farming system represents appropriate combinations of farm enterprises viz., cropping system, livestock, poultry, fishery and the means available to the farmers to raise them for increasing profitability. They interact adequately with environment without dislocating the ecological and socio-economics balance on the one hand and attempt to meet the national goal on the other.
Objectives-
1. To identify existing farming system in specific areas and assess their relative viability.
2. To formulate farming system model involving main and allied enterprises for different farming situations.
3. To insure optimal utilization and conservation of available resources and effective recycling of residues within system.
4. To maintain sustainable production system without damaging resources/environment.
5. To rise over all profitability of farmhouse hold by complementing main/allied enterprises with other.
Scope - Farming system includes crop, livestock, poultry, fish, tree, sericulture etc. The combination of one or more enterprises gives greater dividends than single enterprise especially for small and marginal farmers. Farm as unit is to be considered and planned effective integration of the enterprises to be combined with crop production activity.
2) Define Integrated Farming System (IFS) & describe bjectives and characteristics of IFS.
Objectives of Integrated Farming System
1. Efficient recycling of farm and animal waste.
2. Minimizing the nutrient losses
3. Adoption of efficient cropping systems & crop production
4. Complementary combination of farm enterprises.
The Characteristics of Integrated Farming System
1. It is holistic or system oriented,
2. It is problems solving: involvement of farmers in problem identification and solving process
3. It is farmer participatory,
4. It envisages location specific technology solutions,
5. It is for specific client group-small/ marginal farmer,
6. It adopts bottom up approach,
7. It compasses extensive on farm activities, collaboration between farmer and scientist
8. It is gender sensitive,
9. It ultimate objective is sustainability,
10. It focuses on actual adoption,
11. It recognizes interdependence among multiple clients.
3) Define cropping systems & give its classification with suitable examples.
Cropping System: It represents the cropping patterns used on a farm and their interaction with farm resources, other farm enterprises and available technology which determine their makeup.
Classification:
1. Monocropping
2. Multiple cropping
a) Parallel multiple cropping
i) Mixed cropping
ii) Inter cropping
iii) Relay cropping
iv) Alley cropping
v) Multistoried cropping
b) Sequential multiple cropping
i) Sequence cropping
a) Double cropping
b) Triple cropping
c) Quadruple cropping
ii)Ratoon cropping or rationing
4) Define Non-monetary inputs. Explain in brief non-monetary & Low cost inputs.
Proper planting time: A genotype can exploit its fullest potential only when it has been sown at proper time. Delayed or early sowing results in poor/excessive growth, poor yield attributing characters and yield. Sowing at proper ensures. good germination and better early start due to proper temperature and soil moisture. Dry seeding in cotton, black gram and green gram has been found beneficial. Early sown crop gets an advantage of early rainfall and escapes from pest damage in future and can tolerate drought better than late sown crop.
Depth of sowing: The depth of sowing should be adjusted as per size of the seed. In general smaller the seed (Jute/mustard/sesame) shallower should be the sowing. In soybean, 3-5 cm is the optimum depth of sowing. In chickpea, seeding depth should be 8-12 cm.
Optimum Plant Population: Yield per unit area. depends upon the yield plant and number of plants per unit area. No extra inputs can compensate the loss due to lower plant stand. Excessive plant population than the optimum may give an extra yield but decreases the economic yield: .
Intercropping: intercropping envisages augmentation of productivity both in temporal and spatial dimensions. The advantage is measured in terms of 'land/ income equivalent ratio (LER, IER). It comprises powerful low-cost technology to boost crop productivity particularly in arid and semi-arid rainfed -tracts. Some of the important intercropping systems are cotton + green gram/ black gram / cowpea / soybean / pigeonpea , Pigeenpea + green gram / black gram/ cowpea / soybean, soybean + pigeonpea / green gram, wheat + mustard (9:3), groundnut + sunflower / pigeonpea; linseed + chickpea (2:1) etc. There is a risk coverage besides the bonus yield that farmer obtains from an intercrop. There are other advantages of intercropping such as soil water conservation. due to high plant population, better weed suppression due to crop canopy and soil improvement due to legume effect.
Legumes in rotation: Important rotations are cotton - sorghum-ground. nut, green gram-chickpea / sunflower, soybean/green gram-wheat-groundnut and sorghum wheat summer green gram. There is control of pests and diseases, weeds and better recyching of plant nutrients due to crop rotation. Recycling of farm wastes : NPK and other micronutrients are removed in grain/ straw and green fodder in large quantities and are not returned back to the soil. All the farm residues straw/ stubbles, slaughterhouse waste and human excreta should be returned to the soil after proper decomposition. This input requires no cash involvement except mobilizing human resources. Part of the cowdung is converted into fuel cakes. This can be reduced to some extent by use of gober gas plants, which will provide cooking gas as well as slurry rich in plant nutrients.
Crop rotation and clean cultivation : Proper crop rotation and clean cultivation is important from both soll management and minimizing the insect-pest complex, and disease hazards. Removal of cotton residues, may reduce hazard of pink bollworm and use of under decomposed residue may result in heavy infestation of termities, white grub and stem borer.
Crop substitution: Traditionally low yielding crops under different situations could be replaced by more paying crops like oil seeds. Wheat under rainfed condition can be well substituted by rabi oil seeds such as mustard or safflower where the retums.are three to four fold of that obtained from wheat. Selection of crop should be done as per soil capability classes. In shallow, eroded soll, conventional crops prove uneconomical. Alterative planting of dry land fruits- tamarind, aonla, ber, custard apple and grasses like stylo, siratro and Dicanthium proved economical. Soybean is being extensively grown in kharif fallows in Easter Vidarbha and Madhya Pradesh.
Weed control at critical stages of weed competition: weeds if not controlled timely create competition with crop plant for nutrients, soil moisture, air space and also create insect pest problems in the crop. Timely weeding during critical period of crop weed competition is cheap, effective and remunerative. Crop production is gamble with weeds. The proverb, one years seeding is seven years weeding must be borne in mind while deciding for weed management. Keeping crops like sorghum, pearlmillet, lentil, pigeonpea, soybean in the first 4-6 weeks of sowing weed free is beneficial in terms of economy of labour requirement, moisture use efficiency and nutrient use efficiency. Stale seed bed (Pre-sowing harrowing) and blind tillage (crop pre- emergence) are the most important low cost inputs in weed management.
Low-Cost Inputs:
Choice of variety and good quality seed: The most important low-cost input in modem agriculture is the use of good quality seed of proper varicty. Other inputs like Irrigation and organic manures will act as catalyst only if quality seed is used. Yield can be pushed up 10-15% simply by choosing a suitable variety with good quality seed. High yielding straight varieties are better preferred in organic farming over hybrids and such seeds be produced from the own crop.
Efficient use of manures: Plant nutrient, major and micro are also supplied thrugh well decomposed FYM, compost and vermicompost. These organic sources also improves soil structure soil fertility, soil aeration, water holding capacity and regulation soil temperature so as to improve biological activities of soil. In case of limited supply of organic manure, basal or spot application method should be followed. Oilseed cakes are also a good source of nutrient could be used by ring method in high value crops. No grass / stubble including weeds should be bumt but recycled either in situ or by heaping in pits for decomposition. Biofertilizers: Biofertilizers proved Increasing yield to the extent of 15- 20%. Rhigoblum Inoculation in pulses, Azospirillium in sorghum, pearlmillet, barley, wheat, Azotobacter in rice, wheat, sorghum, maize, vegetables and cotton have been reported to increase crop yield. Phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB)is also importart biofertilizer which makes native P available to crop..
Seed Treatment: Seed treatment is important before sowing for early germination, protecting crop from seed and soll borne diseases, easy sowing etc. Fungicides applied @ 2-3 g/kg seed protects the crop from seed bome diseases. Cotton seed is fuzzy hence it is to be treated with conc. Sulphuric acid for delinting. It is also treated with soil paste before sowing. Pearl millet and rice seed is dipped in 3% salt (NaCl) solution to remove Immature, diseased seed.
In situ water conservation: Excessive rainfall causing runoff and soll loss is not uncommon. After every rain, crust breaking is necessary to Improve soll aeration and increase penetration of rain water. Sowing across the slope or on contour is also a low cost technology. Raising Leucern or vetiver (live bunds) with little cost in the begining, grown on contours is also a low-cost proposition. Land treatment like opening furrows in the crop rows and sowing on broad bed and furrows prove helpful in conserving moisture in situ.
Crop Sequence: On heavy soils, if rainfall is adequate and late (Sept-Oct). rains are heavy, then it is possible to adopt double cropping. Chickpea/safflower can be taken successfully after green gram/ black gram/soybean/groundnut/ cowpeal pearl millet. Highly complimentary yield of safflower is the main advantage of sequential cropping.
Water Management: War management is important particularly when the crops are grown under irrigation. Critical growth stages for imigation have been identified for different crops. Pre-flowering and grain filing stages are the. most important in most of the fie d crops if two irrigations are available. Missing irrigation at these stages causes decrease in yield to the extent of 30-40% in wheat and in almost all the crops.
Alley cropping: Leucaena leucocephala is planted at regular interval o 9-20 m across the slope. The lines at 45 cm with 15 cm plant to plant spacing are planted. In the alleys, crop is grown. When leucaena is 60-90 cm tall cutting is done and lopping added to crop. In a season, 3-5 loppings can be obtained. It has been observed that, there is 50% saving in N dose in cotton and sorghum due to addition of loppings @4-5 t/ha.
5) Define Sustainable Agriculture. Explain its Goals, Merits & Principles
Sustainable agriculture is a form of agriculture aimed at meeting the needs of the present generation without endangering the resource base of the future generation. Sustainable agriculture is also known as Eco farming or organic farming or natural farming or perm culture.
Sustainable agriculture is a balanced management system of renewable resources including soil, wildlife, forests, crops, fish, livestock, plant genetic resources and ecosystems without degradation and to provide food, livelihood for current and future generations maintaining or improving productivity and ecosystem services of these resources.
Goals of sustainable agriculture-
1. The major goals of sustainable agriculture are Environmental health, Economic
profitability and social and economic equity
2. Satisfy human food and clothing (cotton, wool, leather needs.
3. Enhance environmental quality and natural resources,
4. Use nonrenewable resources more efficiently.
5. Take better advantage of no-farm resources
6. Employment natural and biological controls for pests and disease
7. Sustain the economic viability of farming.
8. Enhance the quality of life of farmers and society as a whole.
Principles of sustainable agriculture -
1) Living soil-maintain the soil healthy
2) No fight with nature, but co-operation with them.
3) Lessen the use of outside and distant resources.
4) Non-renewable resources must preserve and use resources efficiently i.e, sunlight, air etc. which are unlimited in nature.
5) Diversity and Adjustment - The diversity of all animals should be preserved and increased.
6) Durable livelihood - durable limitation about how much resources can be utilized by man in an area.
7) Self dependence - The new knowledge and technology should be increase self confidence which help for effacing planning of resources.
6) Describe Farming System Model for Irrigated situation
IFS Models for Irrigated situation
Example:- IFS model (1 ha) for small and marginal farmers was tested against conventional cropping system of cotton-sorghum-finger millet in 0.20 ha area (Rangaswamy et al., 1995)
IFS Model for Garden lands (Cropping + Cattle + Mushroom):
Crop components Area (ha)
I. Cotton-green gram-maize + fodder cowpea- bellary onion 0.56
II. Wheat+Sunflower- maize + fodder cowpea-summer cotton + green gram 0.19
III. Napier (CO-1) 0.15
IV. Lucerne 0.05
V. 150 trees of Leucaena (Planted on bunds) 0.05
Total 1.00
Farm stead
Dairy unit- 3 jersey cows + 2 calves
Biogas unit- 2 m2 capacity
Mushroom production- 1.5-2.0 kg/day
About 2.5 t of legume fodder, 45.5 t grasses and 1.0 t of dry fodder were obtained from IFS. Maize flour, cotton seed and wheat were used to prepare cattle feed. All above were used to feed the cattles. Dung was utilized for biogas plant.
Economics:
1. Mean revenue from IFS Rs. 34,600/ha
2. Mean revenue from CCS Rs. 13,950/ha
3. Employment generation in IFS 770 man days/ha/year.
7) Write in brief about Concept of Low External Input Agriculture (LEIA) and its Impact on Crop. productivity & Sustainable agriculture.
The term low input agriculture has been defined as production activity that uses synthetic fertilizers or pesticides below rates commonly recommended by the extension service. It does not mean elimination of these materials. Yield are maintained through greater emphasis on cultural practices, IPM and utilization of farm resources and management.
1) LEIA refers to those forms of agriculture that seek to optimize the use of locally available resources by combining the different components of the farm system i.e. plants, animals, soil, water, climate and people, so that they complement each other and have the greatest possible synergistic effects.
2) Seeks ways of using external inputs only to the extent that they are needed to provide elements that are deficient in the ecosystem and to enhance available biological, physiological, physical and human resource. In using external inputs, attention is given mainly to maximum recycling and minimum detrimental impact on the environment.
3) LEIA aims at a stable and adequate production level over the long term.
4) LEIA requires management not only at farm level but also at district, regional national and even international level.
5) LEIA incorporates that best components of indigenous farmer's knowledge and practices, ecologically sound agricultural practices developed elsewhere, commercial science and new approaches in science (e.g. systems approach, agro-ecology, biotechnology).
6) LEIA practices must be developed within each ecological and socio economic systems.
8) Define Intercropping. Write its Advantages & Disadvantages.
Intercropping - Growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land with a definite row, pattern e.g. Cotton + Red gram 9:2 ratio or cotton+Sorghum+Tur+Sorghum 6:1:2:1ratio
Crop intensification is in both time and space dimensions.
There is intercrop competition during all or part of crop growth. Farmers manage more than one crop at a time in the same field.
Advantages of Intercropping -
1) Inter cropping gives higher income in a unit area than sole cropping.
2) It acts as an insurance against failure of crops in abnormal year.
3) Inter crops maintain the soil fertility as the nutrient uptake is made from both layers of soil.
4) Reduction in soil runoff and weeds.
5) Inter crops provide shade and support to the other crops.
6) Inter cropping system utilizes resources efficiently and the productivity is in increased.
7) Intercropping with cash crops is highly profitable.
Disadvantages of Intercropping
1) Inter cropping is uneconomical and undesirable during rabbi season.
2) Management of different cultural practices is difficult.
3) Improved implements cannot be used efficiently
4) Higher amount of fertilizer or irrigation water cannot be utilized properly as the component crops vary in their response of these resources.
5) Harvesting of crops are difficult.
9) Define Multiple Cropping. Enlist types of multiple cropping and explain any one.
Multiple cropping - multiple cropping is defined as the cultivation of two or more crops on the same field in a year without deteorating the soil fertility.
Multiple Cropping :
Inter-Cropping
Mixed Cropping
Sequential or sequence cropping or non-overlapping cropping
Relay cropping or overlapping cropping.
Intercropping :
Growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land with a definite row arrangement or in a fixed ratio is called intercropping e.g.
Wheat+ Mustard = 9:1
Setaria + Red gram = 5:1
Here cropping intensity in space dimension is achieved. Such crops are usually grown along with those crops which have larger row interval. Intercropping includes alley cropping, strip cropping, contour cropping, paired row cropping, skip cropping, parallel cropping. But the major intercroppings are-
(i) Parallel Cropping: Cultivation of such crops which have different natural habit and zero competition e.g.
Black gram/Green gram + Maize
The peak nutrient demand period for Urd or Mung is around 30- 35 days after sowing (DAS) while it is 50 days after sowing for Maize.
(ii) Companion Cropping : Such intercropping where the produc tion of both intercrops is epual to that of its solid planting. e.g.
Mustard/Potato/Onion + Sugarcane.
The growing of the above three intercrops individually with sugar cane, the production of none is hardly affected.
(iii) Multistoreyed/Multitiered/Multilevel Cropping : Cultivation of two or more than two crops of different heights simultaneously on a certain piece of land in any certain period. e.g. Sugarcane +Mustard + Onion/Potato.
(iv) Synergetic Cropping: The yields of both crops are higher than of their pure crops on unit area basis e.g. Sugarcane + Potato.
On the basis of percent of plant population used for each crop in intercropping system, intercropping is of two types viz- additive series and replacement series -
(a) Additive series intercropping: In such type of inter cropping. one crop is main crop or base crop and another crop is intercrop. Intercrop is introduced into the base crop by adjusting or changing crop geometry i.e. addition of intercrop to the base crop. Here plant population of base crop is same to what recommended population in pure stand whereas that of intercrop is less. Cropping husbandry is according to the base crop. This type of intercrop- ping is prevalent in India and its main objective is to get additional income and to cover risk. e.g. sowing of potato in the field of sugarcane in between the rows of cane at a 90 cm.
(b) Replacement Series Intercropping: Both the crops are component crops. Neither is the base crop nor is the intercrop. It means the plant population of both component crops is less than their recommended population in pure stand. Such type is widely practised in western countries.
Here 10th row of wheat crop is replaced by mustard and row to row distance of wheat crop is somewhat reduced to adjust the mustard crop.
Pre- requisites of Successful Intercropping :
The main objective of intercropping is to get higher productivity per unit area in addition to stability in production. Intercropping utilizes re- sources efficiently. There are certain important Pre-requisites of intercrop- ping-
(i) The time of peak nutrient demands of component crops should not overlap.
Maize + Urd/ Moong.
The peak nutrient demand is 30-35 days after sowing in case of
urd/moong where as it is 50-55days after sowing for maize.
(ii) Competition for light should be minimum among the component crops.
(iii) Complimentarity should exist between the component crops.
(iv) The differences in maturity of component crops should be at least 30 days.
(v) Competition for CO, and water should also be minimum among component crops.
10) Classify Farming Systems & Describe Diversified Farming.
Diversified farming: Farming having several enterprises or sources of income but no source of income equals as much as 50% of the total receipt.
Advantages:
(1) Better use of land, labour and capital.
(2) Farmer get regular income throughout the year.
(3) Provides employment throughout the year.
(4) Risk of failure of crop due to natural calamities or market price is less.
(5) Maintain soil fertility due to crop rotations.
Disadvantages:
(1) Due to more crop diversification competition for resources within crops increases.-
(2) Maintaining various type of machinaries for various crops is not possible.
(3) Supervision on various enterprises is difficult.
11) Enlist different components of IFS and state Characteristics & Advantages of IFS
1. Productivity
2. Profitability
3. Sustainability
4. Balanced food
5. Environmental safety
6. Recycling of waste
7. Saving energy
8. Adoption of new technology
9. Money round the year
10. Availability of fodder, fuel and timber
11. Employment round the year
12. Agro-industries
13. Increases input efficiency
14. Standard of living
15. Avoid degradation of forest
1.Productivity: Integration of crop and allied enterprises helps to increase economic yield per unit area per unit time. Intensification of cropping allied enterprises in space and time dimension found to increase the productivity.
2 Profitability: Produce / Waste material of one enterprise can be used for other enterprise at least for crop, thus reducing the cost of production and increasing profitability per rupee investment
3 Sustainability: Huge quantity of inorganic fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides are required to meet the food requirement of increasing population@2.2% every year. Abundant use of such material causes soil degradation and pollution. The productivity of soil gets drastically reduced in due course of time. IFS provides an opportunity to sustain production through organic supplementation and effective utilization ofbyproduct of linked components.
4. Balanced food: IFS link varied nature of enterprises to provide nutriousfood viz., vitamins, proteins, carbohydrates, fat, minerais etc. from thesame area. This solves the malnutrition problem of poor peoples.
5. Environmental Safety: Abundant use of inorganic fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides make the soil, water and environment polluted. Similarly, residues of some crops, waste material also pollute the environment after decomposition. However in IFS waste material, by products of one composite are effectively recycled using for other component (crop- livestock) and byproduct of that component as organic manure to enrich the soil. Use of bioagent for crop protection also minimises the pesticides. Where piggory is a major activity, pig manure produces huge quantity of gas and thus pollute atmosphere. But in IFS pig dung can be used for bicgas unit and energy produced by that can be utilized for lighting, water lifting, running Incubation unit
6.Recycling of Waste: By-product of the crop husbandry can be effectively recycled for preparation of compost, some of the bi-product can be used as feed. This reduces the cost of production of one enterprise at the cost of other. Thus net income of farm is increased
7. Saving Energy: Energy crises can be served to some extent by utilizing rganic waste generate blogas which can be used for cookin ighting etc.
8.Adoption of new technology: Big farmers are fully aware with the new technologies because of using improved yarietes, package of practices. But small and marginal farmers are not able to adopt for want of money. In IFS linking of cropping with dairy, mashroom sericulture, floriculture there is a flow of money throughout the year This compels the farmer to adopt new technology
9. Money round the year: In conventional farming income is expected once at the end of cropping season. However IFS provides flow of money round the year by way of disposing eggs, milk, edible mushroom, honey.
cocoons of silkworm etc.
10. Availability of fodder fuel and timber: IFS utilizes every part of land. Growing of fodder trees on border will not only provide fodder but also enrich the soll by fixing atmospheric nitrogen. In multistory cropping inclusion of fodder component like cowpea as second or third tier also meet the fodder crises. The current production of fuel wood is about 20 million m' which needs to be increased to eighteen folds. This can be possible by planting multipurpose tree species in the forest and agroforesty in the cropping system
11. Employment round the year: Crop-livestock Integration increase labour requirement through the year, other activities like mushroom cultivation, Sericulture, Apiculture also needs labour. Hence IFS provides employment to family members as well as outside labour thoughout the year.
12. Agro-Industries: Linking of various components in IFS, the production definitely increased to commercial level. Surplus production leads to development of agro base-1 side industry.
13. Increases input efficiency: IFS provides better scope to use available Inputs more efficiently. Ths loads to increase benefit: cost ratio
14. Standard of Living: IFS leads to produce milk, eggs, fruits, honey. edible mushroom and generate bioenergy for farmer's family and commercial purpose. There is a regular flow of money at frequent interval throughout the year. This & creases the standard of living of the farmer and family members.
15. Avoid degradation of forest: There is a vast gap between demand and production of fuel wood and timber. Users encroaches the forest area to bridge the gap. Forest lands get degraded and eroded due to denudation of forest, Afforestation with MPTS provide safety against degradation erosion, beside supplementation of fuel, timber and fodder
The Characteristics of Integrated Farming System
1. It is holistic or system oriented,
2. It is problems solving: involvement of farmers in problem identification and solving process
3. It is farmer participatory,
4. It envisages location specific technology solutions,
5. It is for specific client group-small/ marginal farmer,
6. It adopts bottom up approach,
7. It compasses extensive on farm activities, collaboration between farmer and scientist
8. It is gender sensitive,
9. It ultimate objective is sustainability,
10. It focuses on actual adoption,
11. It recognizes interdependence among multiple clients.
12) Difference between:
b) LEIA & HEIA
|
Sr.
no.
|
High External Input Agriculture
(HEIA)/ Conventional Agriculture
|
Low External
Input and ·Sustainable Agriculture(LEISA)
|
|
1.
|
Farm practices characterized by heavy use of inorganic fertilizers and other chemical and low degree of organic recycling.
|
Farm management which optimizes the use of locally available natural and organic
sources of nutrients and pest- disease- weed control and cyclic flow patterns to build up living
soil
|
|
2
|
.Use of heavy- coastally machinery and modern technology for farm operations
|
Use of human resources and indigenous technical knowledge to maintain and increase production level
|
|
3.
|
Lack of conscious drive towards sustainability
|
Characterized
by a conscious drive towards
Sustainability
|
|
4
|
It is only feasible for large land holder
|
It is feasible for both small/marginal and large land holders
|
|
5.
|
Natural resources viz. soil, water, air are adversely affected.
|
Instead of adverse effects, all natural resources are conserved and improved.
|
14) Write short notes.
e) Agri-Horti System
It is one form of agro- forestry in which tree component is fruit tree. It is also called as food-cum-fruit system. In which short duration arable crops are raised in the interspaces of fruit trees. Some of the fruit trees that can be considered are guava, pomegranate, custard apple, sapota and mango. Pulses are the important arable crops for this system. However, depending upon the requirements, others like sorghum and pearl millet can be grown in the interspaces of fruit trees. Reasons for this system not being widely adopted are:
• Economic position of farmers may not permit awaiting income for 5-6 years
• Watering of fruit trees, till their establishment is a problem in summer period
• Marketing problems for perishable horticultural produce
f) Factors affecting Ecological Balance
a) Land/soil related problems
• Soil degradatiom
• Deforestation
• Accelerated soil erosion
• Siltation of reserves
• Wind erosion
b) Irrigation related problems
• Rise in groundwater table & water logging
• Soil salinization & alkalization
• Over-exploitation of groundwater
c) Indiscriminate use of agro-chemicals
• Fertilizer pollution
Pesticide pollution
d) Environmental pollution
• Greenhouse effect
• Depletion emissions
• Methane emission
• Eutrophication
h) Sequence Cropping
Growing two or more crops in a sequence on the same field in a farming year (twelve months) for irrigated land and is limited to the period of adequate soil moisture availability for crop growth in semi-arid & arid areas. The succeeding crop is planted after the preceding crop has been harvested. Crop intensification is only in time dimension. There is no inter-crop competition. Farmers manage only one crop at a time in the same field.
i) Intercropping
It refers to growing of two or more dissimilar crops simultaneously on the same piece of land, base crop necessarily in distinct row arrangement. The following four types of inter-cropping are identified.
i) Mixed inter-cropping:
Growing component crops simultaneously with no distinct row arrangement. This is commonly used in labour intensive subsistence farming situations.
ii) Row inter-cropping:
Growing component crops simultaneously in different row arrangement. This is used in mechanized agriculture.
iii) Strip inter-cropping:
Growing component crops in different strips wide enough to permit independent cultivation but narrow enough to the crop to interact agronomically.
iv)Relay inter-cropping:
Growing component crops in relay, so that growth cycles overlap. It necessarily does not mean planting of succeeding crop before flowering stage of preceding crop or attainment of reproductive stage of preceding crop. It refers to planting of succeeding crop before the harvest of preceding crop, planting of succeeding crop may be done before or after flowering before or after attainment of reproductive stage, completion of active life cycle, senescence of leaves or attainment of physiological maturity.
k) Dairy Farming
Dairy farming is one of the economically viable enterprises that could provide constant income throughout the year to farmers when combined with cropping. The success of dairying depends solely on the availability of inputs like feed and fodder and better marketing facilities to milk. To maximize benefits from dairying selection of proper breed to suit the local conditions is very essential. The dairy cattle are broadly classified the following 5 groups.
1. Draft breeds:
The bullocks of these breeds are good draft animals, but the cows are poor milkers e.g. Nagore, Hallikar Kangeyam, Mali.
2. Dairy breeds:
The cows are high milk yielders and the bullocks are with good draft work capacity e.g., Sahiwal, Sindhi, Gir.
3. Dual Purpose:
The cows are fairly good milkers and the bullocks are with good draft work capacity e.g., Hariana, Ongole and Kankerj.
4. Exotic breeds:
The exotic breeds are high milk yeilders, e.g., Jersey, Holstein-Friesian, Aryshire, Brown Swiss and Guernsey
5. Buffaloes:
Important dairy breeds of buffalo are Murrah, Nili Ravi (Which has its home tract in Pakistan, Mehsana, Suti, Zafarabadi, Godavari and Bhadwari. Of these
Godavari has been evolved through crossing local buffaloes in coastal reins of Andhra Pradesh with Murrah.
• Jersey crossbred cows come up very well in most of the climatic conditions, consume less feed and fodder, give more milk with high fat content and possess comparatively better disease resistance.
• Holstein-Friesian could be reared for higher milk yield in places of cooler climate as they lack heat tolerance
Buffaloes like Murrah could also be reared for milk production in semi-arid and arid regions, since they can digest more percentage of roughage than cows and thr well on dry fodder.
l) Diversified Farming
The farm having several enterprises or sources of income but no source of income equals as much as 50% of the total receipt is called diversified farming.
Merits:
1. Better use of land, labour and capital.
Better use of land through adoption of crop rotation, steady employment of farm and family labour and more profitable use of equipment are obtained in diversified farming
ii. Farmer gets regular income throughout the year
iii. Provides employment throughout the year.
iv. Risk of failure of crop due to natural calamities or market price is less.
v. soil fertility due to crop rotations.
vi. Diversified farming is less risky than specialized farming
Demerits:
Due to more crop diversification, competition for resources within crops increases. ii. Maintaining various types of machineries for various crops is not possible.
iii. Supervision on various enterprises is difficult.
15) Define the following:
1. Monoculture: The repetitive growing of the sole crop on the same piece of land. It may either be due to climatological limitation or due to specialization by a farmer to grow a particular crop.
2. Cropping Pattern: The yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crop or of crops and fallow on a given area (a farm), region, province or country apportioning due consideration to natural features (soil and climate), crop efficiency, and capability, socio-economic structure, technological and extension infra-structure (changeable) and the national agricultural policy.
3. Mixed farming: It is defined as a system of farming on a particular farm (regardless of size) which includes crop production, raising of livestock, poultry, fish and bee keeping, and/or tress to sustain and satisfy as many necessities of the owner (farmer) as is possible. Subsistence is the objective here. It is based on the principle of give and take. Farm animals feed on farm produce and in return manure is given to the crops.
4. Sewage: It refers to the wastewater or liquid waste that is produced by residential, commercial, and industrial activities. It typically contains a combination of water, human and animal waste, food scraps, chemicals, and other pollutants. Sewage is generated from various sources such as toilets, sinks, showers, and industrial processes.
Multiple cropping
Multiple cropping refers to intensification of cropping both in time and space. It includes sequential cropping, inter-cropping and mixed cropping
Ratoon cropping:
The cultivation of crops’ re-growth coming out of roots or stalks of the preceding crop after harvest, although not necessarily for grain is termed as ratoon cropping/ratooning.
